Scope creep can cause project failure

Introduction

Scope is one of the key elements that needs to be monitored, controlled and managed during project management because scope creep (uncontrolled changes in project scope) is inherent in most projects and is a major cause of cost and time overrun (Lynch & Roecker, 2007) and even project failure. In this article I will discuss a project that failed due to poor project management and issues to do with scope creep.

Failed computerization project

The National Social Security Authority (NSSA) is a quasi-government organization established by the Zimbabwean government to provide social security services and benefits to members contributing to schemes under its administration. A newspaper article by Mambo (2012) reported that NSSA lost about $4.5 million to a service provider after terminating the service provider’s contract citing incompetence and failure to provide a functioning system to agreed specifications. The matter ended up in court after the service provider disputed NSSA’s claims of incompetence and NSSA lost the court case. The project, which was scheduled to take eight months, was terminated after twenty four months. NSSA’s internal managers who were assigned to manage the project were blamed for the project’s failure. The disagreement between NSSA and the service provider on the deliverables has been attributed to scope creep.

Causes of scope creep

The following are some of the main causes of scope creep that have been highlighted by de Sousa (2009):

• Poorly detailed project scope statement in the project initiation document
• Poor requirements analysis
• Poor control of the project by the project manager
• Indecisive project stakeholders
• Too many project stakeholders with differing priorities and objectives

How NSSA’s issues could have been handled

If I were the project manager for the NSSA project, I would ensure that the project scope (detailing all major deliverables and boundaries) was clearly defined at the beginning of the project, documented and agreed upon by all major stakeholders (Villanova University, 2013). This helps to minimize the chances of scope creep and disagreements as the project progresses. I would also ensure that thorough requirements analysis has been done and users are involved throughout the project.

However, it should be noted that scope creep can still occur even when the scope has been clearly defined. For example a change in vision can result in scope creep (Lynch & Roecker, 2007). In situations where changes have to be made to the project scope as a result of requests by the client, Dr. Stolovitch (n.d.) has suggested that there is need to formally capture the proposed changes using a change of scope document and then determine the effect of the changes on project variables such as the budget and timeline before seeking client approval to effect changes and then finally communicating the changes to the project team and other stakeholders.

Conclusion

While the project manager should make an effort to guard against scope creep throughout the project by, among other things, discouraging requests for changes from various stakeholders, the project manager should be prepared to manage scope creep when it becomes inevitable.

References

de Sousa, S. (2009). What are the causes of scope creep?. Retrieved from

http://www.my-project-management-expert.com/causes-of-scope-creep.html

Lynch, M. M., & Roecker, J. (2007). Project managing e-learning: A handbook for successful design, delivery, and management. London: Routledge.

Chapter 5. Retrieved from

https://class.waldenu.edu/bbcswebdav/institution/USW1/201340_02/MS_INDT/EDUC_6145/Week%206/Resources/Week%206%20Resources/embedded/6145_Wk6_Lynch_Ch5.pdf

Mambo, E. (2012, July 27). NSSA loses US$4.5 million in botched computer deal. Zimbabwe Independent Online. Retrieved from

http://www.theindependent.co.zw/2012/07/27/nssa-loses-us45m-in-botched-computer-deal/

Stolovitch, H. (Walden University). (n.d.). Monitoring projects. [DVD].

Villanova University (2013). Managing scope creep in project management

http://www.villanovau.com/project-management-scope-creep/

 

Estimating project costs and allocating resources in Instructional Design projects

Estimating project costs is a difficult exercise, particularly considering that each project is unique, thus making it difficult to rely on budget estimates for past projects (Portny et al., 2008). However, the following two resources by Clark (2010) and Kapp & Defelice (2009) provide useful information on estimating project costs.

Estimating costs and time in Instructional Design

This article by Clark (2010) provides guidelines on estimating training costs based on contributions from various researchers. Clark provides average estimates as well as references to relevant research that has been conducted on the topic. One point that is highlighted by Clark is that the costs of developing training increases substantially as the level of interactivity in the training materials increases, with high level simulation presentations being the most expensive.

Time to develop one hour of training

Kapp & Defelice (2009) conducted a survey to establish average estimates of time taken to develop instruction as well as factors that cause delays in the development process. Survey results indicated that a major factor that affects development time is the time spent interacting with the client who, in most cases, is unsure of the requirements. Ways to minimize the effect of this factor include effective communication with stakeholders and conducting training for subject matter experts and key stakeholders during project kick off.

Fixed budgets in instructional design projects

A further challenge of instructional design projects is that the budget is often fixed before the scope is determined. It is therefore important for the project manager not only to know how to allocate resources effectively but also to estimate costs associated with individual activities in order to remain within budget.

References

Clark, D. (2010). Estimating costs and time in instructional design. Retrieved from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/costs.html

Kapp, K.M. & Defelice, R.A. (2009). Time to develop one hour of training. Retrieved from

http://www.astd.org/Publications/Newsletters/Learning-Circuits/Learning-Circuits-Archives/2009/08/Time-to-Develop-One-Hour-of-Training

Portny, S. E., Mantel, S. J., Meredith, J. R., Shafer, S. M., Sutton, M. M., & Kramer, B. E. (2008). Project management: Planning, scheduling, and controlling projects. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 

Effective communication in project management

Introduction

Effective communication has been identified as one of the critical success factors in project management because it helps to make people focussed (Portny et al., 2008; Stolovitch, n.d.). However, communication is more than just sending and receiving messages. Effective communication is about sharing information in such a way that other people’s attitudes and behaviours can be influenced (Portny et al., 2008) through understanding the message.  Below is a You Tube video by Maximum Advantage that explains the steps in the communication process, namely message formulation, encoding, sending, decoding, understanding and feedback:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6o3fxJ5Q_RU

Factors that influence effective communication

Factors that influence effective communication include the following:

whether the right message is being shared with the right person Portny et al., 2008); the way the message is formulated and delivered; the mode of delivery; "tonality and body language; personality of the recipient" (Stolovitch, n.d.).

An exercise to evaluate communication effectiveness

Project communication can be formal or informal, written or oral. Although informal communication occurs on a daily basis, Portny et al. (2008) and Stolovitch (n.d.) have recommended that there is need to confirm, in writing, important information communicated informally. While most written communication nowadays is done through emails, oral communication is normally done through face to face meetings and the telephone.

I had the opportunity to carry out an exercise that involved observing and evaluating a piece of communication in three different modalities, as written text, as audio, and as video. The communication was sent by Jane requesting her team member Mark to send his outstanding report as soon as possible so that it could be incorporated in her report before the deadline. I have summarized my thoughts about the effectiveness of each mode of communication below, however, I need to point out that different recipients would probably interpret these messages differently because the personality of each recipient is different (Stolovitch, n.d.).

Email message

I had to re-read the message in order to fully understand it. The message did not immediately motivate me to act and respond to the communicator.

Voice message

The message was communicated in a friendly tone and the communicator was enthusiastic. This message made me empathise with the communicator. I found the message to be the most effective as it conveyed the subject matter clearly in a persuasive manner.

Face to face video message

The message was not communicated effectively because the communicator lacked enthusiasm and the body language was inappropriate. The manner in which the message was communicated did not show the urgency of the request. I found this message to be the least effective.

Nonverbal communication or body language

Research has suggested that nonverbal behaviour plays an important role in the communication process. Wertheim (n.d.) (as cited in Segal, Smith, Boose & Jaffe, 2013) has suggested that nonverbal communication cues can play the following different roles in either enhancing or diminishing the message: repetition, contradiction, substitution, complementing and accenting. However, Jain & Choudhary (2011) have warned that nonverbal communication is culture dependent and is therefore likely to be misinterpreted in different communities.

Implications for project management communication

The project manager needs to choose the most appropriate communication approach to suit the situation. For example, Stolovitch (n.d.) has suggested that important information is best delivered orally in the presence of all team members. There is need to use different modes of communication to suit different situations and preferences of different recipients. Some situations call for combined use of written and oral communication as well as appropriate body language. Irrespective of the communication approach used, the message should be delivered in such a way that it is understood by the recipient.

References

Jain, C. & Choudhary, M. (2011). Actions speak louder than words: Non-verbal mis/communication. Journal of Media and Communication Studies, 3(1), 22-26. Retrieved from

http://www.academicjournals.org/jmcs/PDF/pdf2011/Jan/Jain%20and%20Choudhary.pdf

Portny, S. E., Mantel, S. J., Meredith, J. R., Shafer, S. M., Sutton, M. M., & Kramer, B. E. (2008). Project management: Planning, scheduling, and controlling projects. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Segal, J., Smith, M., Boose, G. & Jaffe, J. (2013). Nonverbal communication:

Improving your nonverbal skills and reading body language. Retrieved from

http://www.helpguide.org/mental/eq6_nonverbal_communication.htm

Stolovitch, H. (Walden University). (n.d.). Communicating with stakeholders. [DVD].

Web sites visited:

http://www.maximumadvantage.com/

The importance of project risk management : learning the hard way

Introduction

 

In this article, I discuss the importance of risk management in project management. First, I highlight the concept of project risk management. I then proceed to share my experience from a project that was not successful in order to illustrate the critical importance of project risk management.

What is project risk management?

Risk management is one of the nine knowledge areas (responsibility areas) defined in PMBOK version 4 (Project Management Institute, 2008) that the project manager and sponsors should pay special attention to. Since project risk is an unforeseen event or activity that can impact the project's progress and outcome, it needs to be carefully managed. The following YouTube video by Mind Tools (2013) explains the process of managing project risks:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=mcV3of_cg6s

The borehole project

In 1999 I sponsored a $6000 project to construct a borehole to supply safe drinking water to my mother who resides in the rural areas, five hundred kilometres from the city where I work and live. The drilling was done by a Government department responsible for district development. After drilling for seventy metres, the drilling contractor stopped and advised that this was a dry hole. The end result is that I lost $6000 and the expected deliverable was not available.

Borehole project post-mortem

Portny et al. (2008) have explained the need to conduct a post project evaluation or project post-mortem after the completion every project in order to learn from best practices and avoid making the same mistakes in future projects.

The following are some of the things that were done to contribute to the borehole project success: the selected drilling contractor was experienced and had previously constructed boreholes in the district, including one borehole located one kilometre away in the next village; borehole siting was done by the drilling contractor. However, I had not considered the possibility and repercussion of a dry hole. With hindsight, I should have discussed the following issues with the drilling contractor: what are the chances of getting a dry hole?; what are the main causes of dry holes?; what happens in case of a dry hole?; what can be done to mitigate the effects of a dry hole, for example, is there is any insurance? Of particular concern is that there was no written contract with the drilling contractor. The main lesson learned from this project is that risk analysis is essential in project management since it helps to identify and manage potential problems that are likely to adversely affect the outcome of the project.

Conclusion

Although risk management is critical to successful project management, it is an activity that can easily be overlooked. Deliberate efforts should be made to incorporate project risk planning into the overall project management plan.

References

Mind Tools (2013). Risk analysis: Evaluating and managing risks. Retrieved from http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_07.htm

Portny, S. E., Mantel, S. J., Meredith, J. R., Shafer, S. M., Sutton, M. M., & Kramer, B. E. (2008). Project management: Planning, scheduling, and controlling projects. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Project Management Institute (2008). A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide). 4^th Edition.

Retrieved from  http://www.greenlocalschools.org/Downloads/File1BOK.pdf

The future of online distance learning

Introduction
 
The demand for online distance learning and enrolment in online distance learning programs, particularly in Higher Education, has been growing and is expected to continue growing in the foreseeable future (Allen & Seaman, 2010). However, there has been a lot of skepticism in the past regarding the quality of online distance learning compared with face-to-face learning. Another source of skepticism was the notion that online distance learning did not facilitate interaction among students (Gaytan, 2007).

Growing acceptance of online distance learning

While some skepticism might still exist, Siemens (n.d.) has explained that there is growing acceptance of online distance learning fuelled by, among other things, the increase in online communication and interaction with diverse global population groups, and practical experience with new tools that help to eliminate geographic distance and time separations.

Role of interaction (interactivity) in online distance learning

One of the key concepts that I learned in my Distance Learning course at Walden is the role of interaction in promoting effective learning. Research has demonstrated that distance learning can be as effective as traditional face to face learning when student interactivity is high (Moore & Thompson 1990; Verduin & Clark 1991, as cited in Durrington, Berryhill & Swafford, 2006). A model of online learning that includes types of interaction, as suggested by Anderson (2004), is shown below.

 

In our Distance Learning course at Walden, the main form of interaction among learners and with the instructor was through asynchronous discussions which helped to promote social presence or the sense of being with others (Heeter, 1992 as cited in Biocca & Harms, n.d.).

Comparability of online distance learning with face-to-face learning

Results of research studies that compared online distance learning with face-to-face learning has helped to reduce the previous skepticism surrounding the quality of online distance learning programs. For example, a meta-analysis conducted by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation, and Policy

Development (2009) revealed that online learning was an effective method of learning for undergraduates, graduate students, and professionals. Additionally, “on average, students in online learning conditions performed better than those receiving face-to-face instruction” (p. xiv).

Role of technology in online distance learning

Technology has played a critical role in facilitating learning at a distance throughout the history of distance learning. Opportunities for online distance learners have further been expanded by the rapid growth of information technology resources, particularly the web and web 2.0 technologies (Chen 2009, as cited in Chaney, Chaney & Eddy, 2010). However, the heavy reliance on technology for delivering content and facilitating student interaction should not be allowed to overshadow the fact that “successful distance learning programs are driven by teaching and learning rather than technology” (Chaney, Chaney & Eddy, 2010, p. 3). Since the needs of learners are paramount, technology should therefore be selected to meet their specific needs and not the other way round.

Impact of open courseware on distance learning

Another important issue that I learned about in my Distance Learning course at Walden is the increasing availability and use of open courseware (OCW) by online distance learners. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), one of the pioneers of OCW in 2002 has teamed up with Harvard University to expand the distribution of OCW as shown in the following EdXOnline (2012) YouTube video:

Conclusion

The rapid developments in technologies that facilitate communication, interaction and collaboration among learners in online distance learning environments, together with the rapid increase in the availability and distribution of OCW, can only point in one direction, namely, continued growth in acceptance of online distance learning in the foreseeable future.

References

Allen, E.I. & Seaman, J. (2010). Learning on demand: Online education in the United States, 2009. Retrieved from

http://www.sloanconsortium.org/publications/survey/pdf/learningondemand.pdf

Anderson, T. (2004). Toward a theory of online learning. Athabasca University. Retrieved from http://cde.athabascau.ca/online_book/ch2.html

Biocca, F. & Harms, C. (n.d.). Defining and measuring social presence: Contribution to the Networked Minds Theory and Measure. Retrieved from   http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/index

Chaney, D., Chaney, E. & Eddy, J. (2010). The context of distance learning programs in Higher Education: Five enabling assumptions. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, XIII(IV). Retrieved from http://www.uncg.edu/oao/PDF/5%20Assumptons%20OJDLA.pdf

Durrington, V., Berryhill, A., & Swafford, J. (2006). Strategies for enhancing student interactivity in an online environment. College Teaching, 54(1), 190–193. Retrieved from

http://www.redorbit.com/news/technology/433631/strategies_for_enhancing_student_interactivity_in_an_online_environment/

EdXOnline (2012, May 12). The future of online education. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com on 23 December 2012.

Gaytan, J. (2007). Visions Shaping the Future of Online Education: Understanding its Historical Evolution, Implications, and Assumptions. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, X(II). Retrieved from http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/summer102/gaytan102.htm

Siemens, G. (Walden University). (n.d.). The future of distance education.  [DVD].

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation, and Policy Development and Program Studies Service (2009). Evaluation of evidence-based practices in online learning: A meta-analysis and review of online learning studies. Retrieved from http://ctl.sri.com/publications/downloads/EvaluationEvidenceBasedPracticeOnlineLearning.pdf

 

 

Converting to a blended learning format

Implications
 

In a blended course, thirty to seventy nine percent of the content is delivered online (Allen & Seaman, 2010). Changing from a face to face course to a blended learning format has implications for the course designer. For example, there is need to assess financial, human and technical resources as well as technical support for both learners and instructors (Garrison and Kanuka, 2004). Learners also need special consideration because they are the main beneficiaries of the learning process. There is need to conduct a thorough learner analysis so that their requirements are addressed. Other considerations include “identifying learning outcomes and topics, creating assignments and activities, determining how interaction will occur, and selecting the technologies to best achieve those learning outcomes” (Kelly, 2012, para. 1).

 

New roles and responsibilities

Aspects of the original training program that could be enhanced in an online distance learning format include improved student interactivity and reflective responses during asynchronous discussions resulting in in-depth learning (Teacher Stream, 2009). Unlike the original training program where a trainer is expected to lead the learning process through presentations, the role of the trainer in an online learning environment would change to encompass facilitation, guidance and motivation. There are a number of things the facilitator can do to encourage the trainees to participate online. These include active participation in online discussions by the facilitator, asking challenging questions that help trainees to develop higher order thinking, and provision of timely feedback (Durrington, Berryhill & Swafford, 2006).

Best practices

The University of Waterloo (n. d.) Centre for Teaching Excellence website highlights the following blended learning best practices:

• The need for instructors to discuss with students why their course has changed to a blended learning format
• Preparing students for their new roles and responsibilities as online learners
• Staff development aimed at ensuring effective facilitation in online discussions 

Bostock (2007) has also proposed the following simple blended learning planning tool:

Intended learning  outcomes	Potential options for online teaching-learning activities	Potential options for traditional face to- face activities

References

Allen, E, & Seaman, J. (2010). Class differences: Online education in the United States, 2010. Babson Survey Research Group.

Retrieved from http://sloanconsortium.org/publications/survey/class_differences

Bostock, S. (2007). How to design a blended learning course. Retrieved from

http://www.keele.org.uk/e-t/how%20to%20design.pdf
 
Durrington, V., Berryhill, A., & Swafford, J. (2006). Strategies for enhancing student interactivity in an online environment. College Teaching, 54(1), 190–193. Retrieved from
http://www.redorbit.com/news/technology/433631/strategies_for_enhancing_student_interactivity_in_an_online_environment/

Garrison, R. & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education. Internet and Higher Education. 7 (2004). 95-105.

Kelly, R. (2012, August 24). Blended learning course design mistakes to avoid.

Faculty Focus.  Retrieved from http://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/instructional-design/blended-learning-course-design-mistakes-to-avoid/

TeacherStream (2009). Mastering Online Discussion Board Facilitation. Edutopia. Retrieved from http://www.edutopia.org/pdfs/stw/edutopia-onlinelearning-mastering-online-discussion-board-facilitation.pdf

University of Waterloo (n. d.). Blended learning: best practices. Retrieved from

http://cte.uwaterloo.ca/teaching_with_technology/blended-learning-best-practices.html

 

Impact of Open Courseware on distance learning

A noticeable trend in distance learning is the use of open courseware. Open Courseware (OCW) is ”a free and open digital publication of high quality college and university-level educational materials” (Open Courseware Consortium, n.d., para. 1) that is “available for use and adaptation under an open licence, such as a Creative Commons licence” (“OpenCourseware”, 2012, para. 2). The use of OCW does not normally provide for access to faculty and is not for earning college credits or certification. Although OCW was originally designed for college and university education, OCW materials for high schools are now available (MIT, 2011a). Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), one of the pioneers of OCW, started to make materials available free on the web in 2002 (Baldi, Heier, & Stanzick, 2002).

 

 

Use of MIT Open Courseware worldwide

 

MIT OCW was originally designed in 2002 to enable other non MIT educators to “use the syllabi, lecture notes, assignments and exams from MIT courses to design their own courses” (Carson, 2011, para. 1). However, a decade later, the primary users of these materials are independent (self) learners who are not attached to any learning institution (Carson, 2011; MIT, 2011b). The MIT website explains that MIT OCW is “available on the web, free of charge, to any user anywhere in the world” (MIT, n.d.). According to the MIT (2011b) statistics summary report, OCW materials are accessed in the following ways: online access (more than 127 million monthly visits); access through secondary channels; offline access (14 million course zip files and 28 million video and audio files downloaded since 2006). OCW is being used by learners who want to learn about specific course topics and educators who want to integrate it into their own teaching materials (Baldi, Heier, & Stanzick, 2002). The MIT (2011b) statistics summary report highlights that users are satisfied with the “breadth, depth, quality and currency of OCW content”.

Suitability of MIT OCW to online distance learning

 

A typical MIT open course site for a graduate course such as Information Technology Essentials includes the following menu options:

• Syllabus
• Calendar
• Readings
• Lecture Notes
• Assignments
• Exams
• Download Course Materials

The range of resources and activities included in the above course package is indicative of a well designed course that has the potential to provide meaningful and effective learning experiences to learners. The download option provides learners with the flexibility and convenience to use the learning materials offline. Navigation from one section of the course to another is the same for both online and offline access.

 

Despite the popularity and widespread online use of MIT OCW, the materials were not designed for e-learning but classroom based learning (Baldi, Heier, & Stanzick, 2002). From a distance learning point of view, MIT OCW does satisfy an essential need of distance learners because learners are able to access the content at their own time and study at their own pace. This is in line with Wedemeyer’s (1977) theory of independence study (as cited in Simonson, Smaldino, Albright & Zvacek, 2012). However, Simonson, Smaldino, Albright and Zvacek (2012) have suggested that courses that were originally designed for the traditional classroom environment may need to be retooled in order to engage learners in an online distance learning environment. Their recommended strategies for designing online instruction include activities that encourage interactivity and allow for student group work.

 

Redesigning OCW for the online distance learning environment
 

Is it a priority to redesign MIT OCW and other OCW for the online distance learning environment which incorporates social and collaborative learning? Maybe not. The required financial and time resources would be prohibitive because the upfront costs of developing online courses and programs are huge (Moller, Foshay, & Huett, 2008). MIT OCW currently focuses on meeting specific needs of learners and learners have reported that they are satisfied with the content on offer (MIT, 2011b). Rather than trying to redesign OCW to facilitate social and collaborative learning, MIT has started restructuring its open courses to facilitate complete independent study by providing a complete set of materials arranged in a logical study sequence. This will go a long way in addressing some challenges faced by independent learners because  previous course materials were “arranged by materials type, with lecture notes in one section, assignments in another and exams in a third” (Carson, 2011, para. 4).

                                     

                                                           References

 
Baldi, S., Heier, H. & Stanzick, F. (2002). Open courseware vs open source software – a critical comparison. ECIS.
Retrieved from  http://csrc.lse.ac.uk/asp/aspecis/20020137.pdf
 
Carson, S. (2011, January 12). MIT OpenCourseWare introduces courses designed for independent learners. MIT News. Retrieved from
http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2010/mitocw-independent learners.html?tmpl=component&print=1
 
MIT (2011a). Highlights for High School. Retrieved from
http://ocw.mit.edu/high-school/
 
MIT (2011b). 2011 Program Evaluation Findings Summary. Retrieved from
http://ocw.mit.edu/about/site-statistics/11_Eval_Summary_112311_MITOCW.pdf
 
MIT (n.d.). Twenty frequently asked questions about MIT OpenCourseWare. Retrieved from
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/global/MIT_OpenCourseWare_FAQs.pdf
 
Moller, L., Foshay, W., & Huett, J. (2008). The evolution of distance education: Implications for instructional design on the potential of the web (Part 1: Training and development). TechTrends, 52(3), 70–75. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete
 
Open CourseWare Consortium (n.d.). What is OpenCourseWare?
Retrieved from  http://www.ocwconsortium.org/en/aboutus/whatisocw
 
Simonson, M., Smaldino, S., Albright, M., & Zvacek, S. (2012). Teaching and learning at a distance: Foundations of distance education (5th ed.) Boston, MA: Pearson.
 
OpenCourseware (2012, November 27). In Wikipedia. Retrieved December 2, 2012 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenCourseWare